economic importance of sea anemoneeconomic importance of sea anemone

doi: 10.1073/pnas.1515297112, Slattery, M., Renegar, D. A., and Gochfeld, D. J. Sea anemones have been known as a copious source of peptides and other molecules having bio-medical potential, however very little is known about the ecological role of these molecules. Asexual propagation of sea anemones that host anemonefishes: implications for the marine ornamental aquarium trade and restocking programs. Bruckner, A. Fish. 224, 8998. Rev. In recruitment surveys only three species of opportunistic or hardy stony coral were recorded, while a wide range of octocoral genera recruited (Bartlett et al., 2018). IUCN (2016). Anthozoans include sea anemones, a variety of corals, sea fans, and sea pens. The symbiotic association between intracellular zoochlorellae (chlorophyceae) and the coelenterate Anthopleura xanthogrammica. 168, 126. Due to the increasing extent and severity of human impacts in marine ecosystems, restoration of habitat forming species is becoming increasingly necessary after disturbance events. Mar. Weil, E., Rogers, C. S., and Croquer, A. Hist. Biol. Feeding behavior of the porcellanid crab allopetrolisthes spinifrons, symbiont of the sea anemone phymactis papillosa. (2012). United Kingdom 90, 6994. Pollut. 19, 669681. Pollut. Extinct in the Wild Extinct Fact sheet Conservation Meet the Animals Physical Description Corals, anemones and jellies are related and all classified in the phylum Cnidaria or "stinging needles." J. Settlement occurs at least 3 weeks after fertilization. living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. For multiple species occupying the same area, begin the tree anew for each species. Siebert, A. Riparian forest restoration: increasing success by reducing plant competition and herbivory. Ecological traits of Caribbean sea anemones and symbiotic - JSTOR Sea anemones are a group of predatory marine invertebrates of the order Actiniaria. Mar. Octocorals are especially vulnerable since many species grow in or near soft sediments and often prefer the deep water habitats also frequented by trawlers (Schleyer and Celliers, 2003; Wareham, 2009; Baillon et al., 2012; Poulos et al., 2016). Ontogenetic and sex-based differences in habitat preferences and site fidelity of Whites seahorse Hippocampus whitei. doi: 10.2307/2265554, Kayal, M., Vercelloni, J., Lison de Loma, T., Bosserelle, P., Chancerelle, Y., Geoffroy, S., et al. In addition, octocorals and anemones have similar ecological roles as soft benthic habitat formers. Are soft coral habitats unfavourable? Caribb. Hydras | Missouri Department of Conservation Classification, To cite this page: Proc. used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. 266, 273302. Res. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Ecol. The hidden structure in coral reefs. Changes in anemone size and colour due to bleaching: (a) anemone at week 0, pre- bleaching; and (b) week 18 after being exposed to light deprivation for a period of fivefive months . gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate), Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, corals, sea anemones, jellyfish, and relatives, "Anthopleura xanthogrammica: Giant green anemone", 2013, http://sanctuarysimon.org/species/anthopleura/xanthogrammica/giant-green-anemone, http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Anthopleura+xanthogrammica, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0302352481800229, http://animal-world.com/Aquarium-Coral-Reefs/Giant-Green-Anemone, http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=283377, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00663919, http://www.racerocks.com/racerock/eco/taxalab/2005/anthopleurax/anthopleurax.htm, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305049197001740, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6108877, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jez.1402110311/abstract, http://books.google.com/books?id=tUl5ESavtRIC&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&dq=anthopleura+between+pacific+tides+life+span&source=bl&ots=3WhGNFmFqs&sig=-d9Ooj7GR1OdGnGXVKnnikor1j4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oLSOUY2MMsn0iQKb0YDwCg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=anthopleura%20between%20pacific%20tides%20life%20span&f=false, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10126-008-9175-9, http://www.biolbull.org/content/166/3/457.short, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022098182901101, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(81)90159-3, http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z74-175?journalCode=cjz#.UVnYJ7_K9gu, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00431400, http://www.wallawalla.edu/academics/departments/biology/rosario/inverts/Cnidaria/Class-Anthozoa/Subclass_Zoantharia/Order_Actiniaria/Anthopleura_xanthogrammica.html, Anthopleura xanthogrammica: information (1), 2020 Regents of the University of Michigan. Acta Ecol. These species were chosen for several reasons. Antarctic sea anemone distribution, abundance and relationships with doi: 10.1006/jmsc.2000.0906, McCook, L. J., Jompa, J., and Diaz-Pulido, G. (2001). Conserv. Mar. PLoS One 7:e38124. Ecosyst. Individuals can either be collected with their attachments still in place, or can be physically attached using wire, string, or other physical material (e.g., Oren and Benayahu, 1997; Ng et al., 2015). Sea Anemones. Though this mooring block has since been moved, populations have not yet recovered in either location. doi: 10.1007/s00338-015-1360-5, Ates, R. M. L. (1989). Other human activities, such as dredging, shift sediment and can damage corals by smothering colonies or reducing photosynthetic ability and exacerbating the effects of bleaching (Erftemeijer et al., 2012; Appeldoorn et al., 2016; Jones et al., 2016; Bessell-Browne et al., 2017). Video of the Day. (2016). at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0302352481800229. They are easily bred and grow relatively quickly in captivity, and thus make useful research animals. Description of types and other alcyonacean material (Coelenterata: Octocorallia) in the Australian Museum. Ecology 77, 15921599. 311, 114. Once this has been decided, the juvenile/cut octocorals or anemones can be kept in aquaculture or mariculture systems until they are large enough for transplantation (Edwards et al., 2010; Leal et al., 2017). They feed on a wide variety of prey including mussels, sea urchins, small fishes, and crabs, and are eaten by a wide variety of predators including sea slugs, sea snails, sea spiders, sea stars, and large crabs. Res. Impacts of recreational SCUBA diving on coral communities of the Caribbean island of Grand Cayman. doi: 10.3354/meps08364, Corriero, G., Abbiati, M., and Santangelo, G. (1997). Finally, C. rubrum was chosen because of the extensive time frame of both impacts and protections, and breadth of literature. Octocorals and anemones are not only vulnerable to global disturbances such as ocean warming, they also face threats from more local sources. Anemones could be cultured using sexual reproduction, which has been studied in two (Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa) of the ten species of sea anemones that host anemonefishes -. Chang. Because of the poached nature of fragments used in the pilot reconstruction study, exact GPS coordinates of the fragments used could not be obtained (Montero-Serra et al., 2018), but should be where possible. 2) They are exclusively aquatic and marine. 169, 225237. Accessed Once an anemone reaches sexual maturity, at anywhere from 5-10 years old, it develops gonads. Distribution and abundance of giant sea anemones (Actiniaria) in subtropical eastern Australian waters. Dafforn, K. A. The state of the area to be restored should also be examined. Mar. Bio. Changes in algal, coral and fish assemblages along water quality gradients on the inshore Great Barrier Reef. doi: 10.1186/s40623-018-0820-x, Dee, L. E., Horii, S. S., and Thornhill, D. J. (2018). 102, 6775. Though some populations of D. australis within the Port Stephens estuary were heavily impacted, others remained unaffected and are ideal reference ecosystems (Harasti, 2016). 102, 929. Economic Importance for Humans: Positive Economic Importance for Humans: Negative Conservation Status Other Comments Contributors References Geographic Range Sycon ciliatum are marine sponges found world-wide, usually in shallow water, but rarely more than 150 meters deep. A decision framework for coastal infrastructure to optimize biotic resistance and resilience in a changing climate. Declining seahorse populations linked to loss of essential marine habitats. 8, 4147. Disclaimer: Ser. 141, 427437. Sutherland, K. P., Porter, J. W., and Torres, C. (2004). doi: 10.3354/meps128261, Veale, A. J., and Lavery, S. D. (2012). Cambridge: UNEP-WCMC. Invertebr. To mitigate natural damage by boring sponges, Bramanti et al. While recent research suggests that anemone bleaching does not impact nematocyst toxicity (Hoepner et al. (2002). Unfortunately, little is known about octocoral propagation by this method, so feasibility must be assessed species by species. Aquatic Species Distribution Maps. When anthopleurin is detected, an anemone shows an alarm response by retracting its oral disc and tentacles. doi: 10.1016/j.fishres.2019.04.018, Frisch, A. J., Rizzari, J. R., Munkres, K. P., and Hobbs, J. P. A. A comparative demographic analysis of clonal reproduction in a temperate soft coral. Norton, T. 1981. Age structure in these exploited populations is skewed toward small and young colonies, a sign of frequent disturbance (Figures 4c,e; Tsounis et al., 2006). Ecosyst. Bull. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0809996106, Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S. J. M., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M., Kirton, L. G., et al. ("Anthopleura xanthogrammica: Giant green anemone", 2013), The nervous system of sea anemones has been described as elementary. Accessed 5:e124. Watabe, N., and Kingsley, R. J. soft coral, (b) use of Anthelia sp. Sci. How do we overcome abrupt degradation of marine ecosystems and meet the challenge of heat waves and climate extremes? FAO aquatic species distribution map of Corallium rubrum. Mar. In other areas, such as the Maldives and Australia, export of octocorals and anemones is not regulated explicitly, but is included in aggregate export limits (Dee et al., 2014). May 10, 2013 Mar. Sci. After disturbances that deplete stony coral populations and cover, a phase-shift to octocoral-dominated reefs can occur, quickly increasing species and habitat diversity (Norstrm et al., 2009). Mar. Sydney. Conserv. Predator crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) outbreak, mass mortality of corals, and cascading effects on reef fish and benthic communities. Physiological plasticity preserves the metabolic relationship of the intertidal non-calcifying anthozoan-Symbiodinium symbiosis under ocean acidification. Edwards, A. J., Omori, M., Iwao, K., Dizon, R., Morse, A., Boch, C., et al. Bruckner, A. W., and Roberts, G. G. (eds) (2009). Fishes. 369, 17. Sea anemone | Invertebrate, Symbiotic Relationship & Adaptations Townsville, QL: AIMS. RS was supported by a Research Training Scholarship provided by the Australian Government. Mesophotic coral ecosystems under anthropogenic stress: a case study at Ponce, Puerto Rico. April 05, 2013 Introduction. Column diameter may be up to 17 cm (tentacular cap crown diameter up to 25 cm) and they may grow to be as tall as 30 cm. Aqu. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0425-8_5, Keywords: alcyonaceae, octocoral, soft coral, sea anemone, tropical, temperate, Citation: Steinberg RK, Dafforn KA, Ainsworth T and Johnston EL (2020) Know Thy Anemone: A Review of Threats to Octocorals and Anemones and Opportunities for Their Restoration. Recolonisation of Acropora hyacinthus following climate-induced coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. Behavioral reactions of the sea anemone, Anthopleura xanthogrammica, to ultraviolet and visible radiations. Reproduction in giant green anemone occurs through external fertilization. Freshw. Nature 10, 353355. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047363, Kleypas, J. Proc. Freshw. Mar. Ser. ADW: Heteractis magnifica: INFORMATION Though octocorals do suffer from diseases like aspergilliosis, black and red band diseases, gorgonian labyrinthulomycosis, and at least 15 others, information on their susceptibility to and effect from these diseases is limited (Slattery et al., 2013; Weil et al., 2015). In addition, A successful reconstruction pilot experiment using confiscated poached fragments of C. rubrum has shown that it is resilient to stress associated with reconstruction. Figure 2. The column is dark green to brown in color, with irregular tubercles on the surface. Jarrold, M. D., Calosi, P., Verberk, W. C. E. P., Rastrick, S. P. S., Atfield, A., and Spicer, J. I. PLoS One 7:e47363. Field Guide to Anemonefishes and their Host Sea Anemones . doi: 10.1071/MF10323, Sethmann, I., and Wrheide, G. (2008). Mar. Management interventions, such as genetic, reproductive, physiological, population/community, and environmental interventions, can be used to great effect in conservation and restoration efforts, though these techniques are not without complications (van Oppen et al., 2017; National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2019). D. Hopley (Dordrecht: Springer), 740745. The influence of quantitative and qualitative aspects of habitat complexity in tropical sea-grass meadows. In Japan after the prolonged 1998 heatwave at Sesoko Island, bleaching mortality was greater in octocorals than stony corals, with a 99% decrease in overall octocoral cover vs. 73% in stony corals (Loya et al., 2001). First, we need to understand how the target species will cope with a changing climate or other large scale, unavoidable human impacts (van Oppen et al., 2017; Bellwood et al., 2019). International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoraiton - Including Principles and Key Concepts. South East Marine Protected Areas Seamounts project. doi: 10.3391/mbi.2017.8.2.03, Dafforn, K. A., Glasby, T. M., and Johnston, E. L. (2012). Enhanced larval supply and recruitment can replenish reef corals on degraded reefs. Aust. Reports and journal articles have been published and a metanalysis performed on the results of implementing MPAs (e.g., Santangelo and Abbiati, 2001; Tsounis, 2005; Tsounis et al., 2006; Bruckner, 2009), though the metanalysis has been contentious (Bruckner, 2010; Santangelo and Bramanti, 2010). Recovery potential of mutualistic anemone and anemonefish populations. Cascading disturbances in Florida Bay, USA: cyanobacteria blooms, sponge mortality, and implications for juvenile spiny lobsters Panulirus argus. They are predatory animals that prey on free-living organisms like crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, thus acting as a link between the pelagic and benthic ecosystems ( Brusca and Brusca, 2003 ). Surveys in Arrial do Cabo, Brazil found that approximately 48% of surveyed colonies were dead, and 75% of living colonies showed signs of disease with ongoing tissue loss over time (Erni Cassola et al., 2016). From an ecological prospect, these molecules are involved in prey capture, protection against predators, or deterring competitors of the sea anemone. We find that the loss of octocorals and anemones has been difficult to quantify as most species have no hard structures that remain following a mortality event. NSW Fisheries Scientific Committee (2019). doi: 10.3354/meps08110, Bruckner, A. W. (2010). Evol. Ecol. (On-line). An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. Biol. Goldberg, J., and Wilkinson, C. (2004). 46, 523536. Similarly, in temperate waters off the eastern United States fish abundance was significantly positively correlated with sea whip coral cover, but not to any other benthic habitat group (Schweitzer and Stevens, 2019). (IUCN, 2013). plugs in close proximity. 21, 458469. Biol. Mar. J. Exp. Research that can help better understand the relationship between sea anemone hosts and clownfish has been highly . at http://www.jstor.org/stable/3573101. Snchez, J. as habitat by frogfish, (c) obligate symbiont Hippocampus bargabanti in its gorgonian host, (d) corallivorous cowrie in Dendronephthya australis, and (e) use of mixed stony coral, soft coral, and anemone habitat by anemonefishes, damselfishes, wrasses, and other . (2012). Aquat. Res. A., and Yates, K. K. (2009). If the animal is in shade, these algae will be reduced in number or absent. J. 1992. at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00663919. Results from monitoring, studies of life history traits, and pilot transplantations suggest that reconstruction may be an appropriate way to improve population densities in areas where impacts have been successfully mitigated (Montero-Serra et al., 2018). Ecol. Chang. (2013). Both of these anemones have separate sexes, and broadcast spawn gametes for external fertilization and development during predictable annual spawning . Prog. May 11, 2013 Most anemones are small, but some can grow as large as 6.5 feet in diameter. 1980. For example in anemones, survivorship increases when they are inhabited by anemonefish (Frisch et al., 2016). For example, assisted evolution may be a viable method for increasing within-species resistance to ongoing pressures, and should be considered when trying to mitigate the effects of long term, unavoidable disturbances in conjunction with other short term methods (van Oppen et al., 2015, 2017; Ainsworth et al., 2019). Gmez, C. E., Paul, V. J., Ritson-Williams, R., Muehllehner, N., Langdon, C., and Snchez, J. ), 2014) and therefore trade is largely unmonitored (Bruckner, 2001). Accessed This is despite the fact that minority habitat formers can provide critical complexity, food, and other services that underpin ecosystem biodiversity. Figure 1. A new pygmy seahorse, Hippocampus denise (Teleostei: Sygnathidae), from the Indo-Pacific. The genome of Aiptasia , a sea anemone model for coral symbiosis Economic Importance for Humans: Negative Conservation Status Other Comments Contributors References Geographic Range Biogeographic Regions atlantic ocean native pacific ocean native Habitat This species of sea anemone lives in salt marshes along the coast of the United Kingdom, as well as the east and west coasts of the United States. (2018). Sci. The chemistry and chemical ecology of octocorals (Coelenterata, Anthozoa, Octocorallia). "Discover Life" Sea Anemones, in Marine Ornamental Species Aquaculture, eds I. Olivotto, M. P. Oliver, and G. J. Holt (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons), 437456. Mar. 218, 19. Data Centre. Lambo, A. L., and Ormond, R. F. G. (2006). Pacific Sci. Cumulative impacts: thermally bleached corals have reduced capacity to clear deposited sediment. Taxon Information Prog. Environ. PeerJ 5:e3499. (Clark and Kimeldorf, 1971; Hickman, et al., 2011; Howe, 1976; Kimeldorf and Fortner, 1971), Giant green anemones are carnivores, feeding mostly on sea urchins, detached mussels, crabs, and small fish; they settle preferentially in mussel beds to increase food availability. Anemonefish recruitment: the roles of order and chance. Annu. Mar. as habitat by frogfish, (c) obligate symbiont Hippocampus bargabanti in its gorgonian host, (d) corallivorous cowrie in Dendronephthya australis, and (e) use of mixed stony coral, soft coral, and anemone habitat by anemonefishes, damselfishes, wrasses, and other fish species. Hard and soft benthic cnidarians are under increasing threat from both natural and human-induced disturbances, including climate change, disease, anchor and boat damage, and commercial collection (Loya et al., 2001; Precht et al., 2001; Santangelo and Abbiati, 2001; Goldberg and Wilkinson, 2004; Garrabou et al., 2006; Bruno et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2008; Poulos et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2015; Erni Cassola et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.007. Coral Reefs 24, 564573. Because this is a cold-water anemone, it has a relatively slow metabolism, requiring it to feed only once or twice a month. This technique is a viable option for mitigating the impact of necessary underwater infrastructure, especially if the structures are designed to increase coral recruitment (e.g., Burt et al., 2009). In the Caribbean, outbreaks of disease have caused mass mortality events in several species of gorgonians (Garzon-Ferreira and Zea, 1992; Geiser et al., 1998; Sutherland et al., 2004). Atoll Res. doi: 10.1007/s10641-016-0571-0, Rinkevich, B. doi: 10.1007/s00442-011-2156-0, Santangelo, G., and Abbiati, M. (2001). doi: 10.1080/10641262.2010.516035, Munday, P. L., Dixson, D. L., Donelson, J. M., Jones, G. P., Pratchett, M. S., Devitsina, G. V., et al. Ecol. Mar. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Mechanical design of spicule-reinforced connective tissue: stiffness. Proc. The Ecological Importance of Toxicity: Sea Anemones Maintain Toxic These impacts have been studied in situ using natural CO2 gradients associated with volcanic vents, and vary between study locations For example, in Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea soft coral cover and richness were both significantly reduced in high CO2 environments, while in waters off Iwotorishima Island, Japan, community composition shifted from stony coral dominated in low CO2 environments to being dominated by a single species of octocoral in moderately acidified water (Fabricius et al., 2011; Inoue et al., 2013). In this review, we apply the international and regional frameworks provided by the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) to assess current knowledge of octocoral restoration (McDonald et al., 2016a, b). 559, 257263. doi: 10.1111/conl.12341, Moorhead, J. (On-line). This information can be used in restoration treatment prescriptions in two ways as in-situ settlement material to reduce boring sponge mortality in assisted regeneration, or as a source of sexually derived propagules for transplantation in reconstruction efforts. 376, 293306. Coral Reefs 36:445. doi: 10.1007/s00338-017-1540-6, Francis, L. (1979). Restor. Assoc. Freshw. Soft coral abundance on the central Great Barrier Reef: effects of Acanthaster planci, space availability, and aspects of the physical environment. at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jez.1402110311/abstract. doi: 10.1007/s00338-019-01831-7, Ruiz-Moreno, D., Willis, B. L., Page, A. C., Weil, E., Crquer, A., Vargas-Angel, B., et al. doi: 10.1890/08-0005.1, Fabricius, K. E., Langdon, C., Uthicke, S., Humphrey, C., Noonan, S., Death, G., et al. Venom from nematocysts of giant green anemones has proven very useful in the development of pharmaceutical drugs. We found that historic baseline data is available for C. rubrum from several location across the Mediterranean (Garcia-Rodriguez and Mass, 1986; Garcia-Rodriguez and Mass, 1986; Garrabou and Harmelin, 2002), and has previously been used to help quantify population damage (Bruckner, 2009). The relationship between fish abundance and benthic community structure on artificial reefs in the Mid-Atlantic Bight, and the importance of sea whip corals Leptogorgia virgulata. ADW: Nematostella vectensis: INFORMATION (2016). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 94, 1940. Fabricius, K., and Alderslade, P. (2001). Biodiversity and the functioning of seagrass ecosystems. doi: 10.1111/jfb.12492. doi: 10.1007/s003380050053. Tracking the trade in ornamental coral reef organisms: the importance of CITES and its limitations. 104, 329334. Fine-scale adaptation in a clonal sea anemone. For example, creating sustainable harvesting schemes for slow-growing C. rubrum would significantly expand our knowledge of sustainable use of benthic cnidarians, such as has previously been found for the Hawaiian black coral (Grigg, 2001). doi: 10.1111/gcb.13647, van Oppen, M. J. H., Oliver, J. K., Putnam, H. M., and Gates, R. D. (2015). 59, 7999. The bubble-tip anemone Entacamaea quadricolor is particularly popular both as a tourist attraction and in home aquaria (Figure 1e; Jones et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2015). Ecol. Use of artificial reef structures to rehabilitate reef flats degraded by coral mining in the Maldives. Six groups of octocorals were surveyed during this event, with only one group unimpacted, four groups partially impacted, and one group totally bleached or dead (Van Woesik et al., 1995). Octocorals and anemones are also adept at colonizing novel habitats and can quickly increase both structural and species diversity in an area (Brace and Quicke, 1986; Perkol-Finkel and Benayahu, 2005; Perkol-Finkel et al., 2005; Hiscock et al., 2010). C. rubrum is threatened by commercial collection for jewelry. Coast. Additionally, one species of anemone, Mesactinia genesis, increased both its photosynthetic ability and stinging efficacy against stony corals in high nutrient and turbidity environments (Liu et al., 2015). 55, 724744. (1997). Biol. 64, 17371765. doi: 10.1007/s003380000129. In stony coral restoration this technique is commonly used when rubble fields are formed due to mining, blasting, or boating incidents (e.g., Clark and Edwards, 1994; Edwards and Clark, 1999; Precht et al., 2001; Lindahl, 2003; Rinkevich, 2005). In one study, animals in captivity released gametes at night. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Demography, Reproductive Biology and Trophic Ecology of Red Coral (Corallium rubrum L.) at the Costa Brava (NW Mediterranean): Ecological Data as a Tool for Management. Mar. Rev. Conserv. Stud. Prog. 11, 19. (2019). (2010). Mar. These simple preliminary experiments are extremely important to long term success or failure of restoration efforts, as they inform future efforts and promote successful attachment, and can improve restoration efficacy of this and other species. Mar. Overall, the reproductive method (sexual vs. asexual), local adaptations, and genetic diversity of source populations should be considered when choosing how to source propagules for restoration (Baums, 2008; Edwards et al., 2010). Fishes that eat sea anemones, a review. Ser. Biol. Wetlands 13, 176184. Marine Biotechnology, 11/4: 441-444.